What is different about high-speed rail?

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"High-speed train" redirects here. For the "High Speed Train" in the United Kingdom, see InterCity 125.

For fast railway services with speeds less than 200 km/h (125 mph), see Higher-speed rail.

High-speed rail (HSR) is a rail transport system that includes trains running significantly faster than those of traditional rail. It uses a fully integrated network of specialized rolling stock and dedicated tracks. While no single standard applies worldwide, lines designed for speeds above 250 km/h (155 mph) or upgraded lines exceeding 200 km/h (125 mph) are widely recognized as high-speed.

The first high-speed rail system, the Tōkaidō Shinkansen, commenced operations in Honshu, Japan, in 1964. Due to the locomotive's streamlined bullet-shaped nose cone, it became popularly known as the bullet train. Japan's success inspired several European nations to explore high-speed rail, beginning with the Direttissima line in Italy, followed by France, Germany, and Spain. Today, many European countries feature an extensive network of high-speed rail with numerous international connections. Of note, recent developments in the 21st century have seen China emerge as a leader in high-speed rail, with its network accounting for over two-thirds of the global total.

In addition to Japan and China, many other countries have developed high-speed rail infrastructure to connect major urban centers. Countries such as Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Greece, Indonesia, Morocco, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, South Korea, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, Turkey, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Uzbekistan have implemented high-speed rail services. Notably, only in continental Europe and Asia does high-speed rail facilitate cross-border travel.

High-speed trains predominantly operate on standard gauge tracks using continuously welded rail on grade-separated rights-of-way designed with large curve radii. However, certain areas with broader legacy rail networks, including Russia and Uzbekistan, aim to establish high-speed rail networks using Russian gauge. Spain and Portugal have developed high-speed connections utilizing the Iberian gauge. There are no known narrow gauge high-speed trains; countries where the legacy networks are predominantly of different gauges, such as Japan and Spain, have typically constructed their high-speed lines to standard gauge.

High-speed rail represents the fastest and most efficient ground-based transportation method available. However, due to the factors such as the need for large track curves, gentle gradients, and grade-separated routes, constructing high-speed rail is typically more costly than building conventional rail. This results in situations where high-speed rail does not always economically outperform traditional rail services.

Definitions

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Multiple definitions for high-speed rail remain in use globally.

The European Union Directive 96/48/EC, Annex 1 (refer to Trans-European high-speed rail network) defines high-speed rail as follows:

Infrastructure

Tracks built or specifically upgraded for high-speed travel.

Minimum speed limit

A minimum of 250 km/h (155 mph) on lines designed for high speeds and approximately 200 km/h (124 mph) on existing lines that have been upgraded. This standard applies to at least one section of the line. The rolling stock must also be capable of reaching a speed of at least 200 km/h to be classified as high-speed.

Operating conditions

Rolling stock design must ensure compatibility with infrastructure for optimum safety and quality of service.

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The International Union of Railways (UIC) identifies three categories of high-speed rail:

Category I

Newly constructed tracks specifically built for high speeds, accommodating a maximum operational speed of at least 250 km/h (155 mph).

Category II

Existing tracks upgraded for high speeds, allowing a maximum operational speed of at least 200 km/h (124 mph).

Category III

Existing tracks upgraded for high speeds, permitting a maximum operational speed of at least 200 km/h, though some sections may have reduced permissible speeds due to topographical constraints or urban areas.

A third definition, encompassing high-speed and very high-speed rail, necessitates fulfillment of the following conditions:

1. Maximum operational speed exceeding 200 km/h (124 mph), or 250 km/h (155 mph) for very high-speed rail.
2. Average speed throughout the corridor exceeding 150 km/h (93 mph), or 200 km/h (124 mph) for very high-speed rail.

The UIC opts for the term "definitions" (plural) as no unified standard definition exists for high-speed rail, nor a standardized usage of the terms ("high speed" or "very high speed"). They refer to the European EC Directive 96/48, emphasizing that high-speed is established by a combination of all elements constituting the system: infrastructure, rolling stock, and operating conditions.[2] The International Union of Railways states that high-speed rail signifies a set of distinct features, not merely a train traveling above a particular speed. Numerous conventionally driven trains can reach speeds of 200 km/h (124 mph) in commercial service but are not classified as high-speed trains, including the French SNCF Intercités and German DB IC services.

The criterion of 200 km/h (124 mph) was selected for several reasons: at speeds beyond this threshold, geometrical imperfections lead to amplified impacts, track adhesion diminishes, aerodynamic resistance escalates, pressure variations in tunnels cause passenger discomfort, and it becomes challenging for drivers to interpret trackside signalling.³ Standard signalling devices are generally restricted to speeds below 200 km/h (124 mph), with traditional limit markers standing at 127 km/h (79 mph) in the US, 160 km/h (99 mph) in Germany, and 125 mph (201 km/h) in Britain. Speeds above these thresholds necessitate positive train control or the European Train Control System compliance.

National domestic standards may differ from the international metrics.

History

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Railways were the first rapid land transportation modes and monopolized long-distance passenger traffic until the advent of automobiles and airliners in the early to mid-20th century. Railroads have historically prioritized speed, consistently aiming to reduce travel times. By the late 19th century, rail transportation did not lag much behind today’s non-high-speed trains, as several railroads operated express trains averaging around 100 km/h (62 mph).

Early Research

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First Experiments

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High-speed rail development initiated in Germany during the early 20th century when the Prussian state railway collaborated with ten electrical and engineering firms to electrify 72 km (45 mi) of military-owned railway between Marienfelde and Zossen. This line utilized three-phase current at 10 kilovolts and 45 Hz.

The Van der Zypen & Charlier company in Deutz, Cologne, manufactured two railcars—one equipped with Siemens-Halske electrical components, and the other with equipment from Allgemeine Elektrizitäts-Gesellschaft (AEG)—which were put to the test on the Marienfelde-Zossen line between 1933 and 1934.

On October 23, 1934, the railcar with S&H equipment achieved a speed of 206.7 km/h (128.4 mph), while the AEG equipped railcar reached 210.2 km/h (130.6 mph) on October 27. These trials paved the way for future electric high-speed rail advancements, but regular electric high-speed rail travel would still take more than three decades to develop.

High-Speed Aspirations

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After the breakthrough of electric railroads, infrastructure costs notably hindered high-speed rail advancement. Numerous incidents—such as derailments, head-on collisions on single-track lines, and accidents with road traffic at grade crossings—highlighted the complexities of rapid rail operation. Known physical principles dictated that doubling speed necessitated quadrupling curve radii; this also applied to acceleration and deceleration distances.

In 1932, engineer Károly Zipernowsky proposed a high-speed line from Vienna to Budapest, intending for electric railcars to run at 250 km/h (160 mph). In 1936, Wellington Adams championed an air-line between Chicago and St. Louis at a speed of 252 miles (406 km), aiming for a speed of only 160 km/h (99 mph).

Alexander C. Miller launched the Chicago-New York Electric Air Line Railroad project in 1936, aspiring to shorten the journey between the two metropolises to ten hours using electric locomotives operating at 160 km/h (99 mph). However, after seven years, only 50 km (31 mi) of the project had been completed, with part of it still in operation as one of the last interurbans in the US.

High-Speed Interurbans

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In the United States, some interurbans—trams or streetcars connecting cities—achieved very high speeds for their time (similar trends were seen in early 20th-century Europe). Various high-speed rail technologies arose from the interurban domain.

In 1904, three decades before conventional railways streamlined trains, Louisiana Purchase Exposition officials established the Electric Railway Test Commission, organizing tests to develop a carbody design that minimized wind resistance at high speeds. A series of tests culminated with St. Louis Car Company's creation of a railcar for traction magnate Henry E. Huntington capable of reaching speeds nearing 160 km/h (100 mph), achieving an average speed of 130 km/h (80 mph) between Los Angeles and Long Beach in just 15 minutes. However, the railcar's weight limited track use, prompting manufacturers like Cincinnati Car Company and J. G. Brill to pioneer lightweight designs utilizing aluminum alloys and low-level bogies for smooth operation at high speeds. Starting in 1910, interurban cars frequently reached speeds around 145 km/h (90 mph) in regular traffic. The Red Devils, built by the Cincinnati Car Company, were noteworthy for their lightweight construction, enabling seating for 44 passengers at a weight of just 22 tons.

Innovative wind tunnel tests—the first of their kind for the railway industry—preceded the successful implementation of Bullet cars by J. G. Brill for the Philadelphia and Western Railroad (P&W), which could operate at 148 km/h (92 mph). Some of these cars remained in service for close to six decades. P&W's Norristown High Speed Line still operates today, nearly 110 years after their introduction of a double-track line with no road or railway grade crossings, governed entirely by an absolute block signal system.

Early German High-Speed Network

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On May 15, the Deutsche Reichsbahn-Gesellschaft company introduced the diesel-powered "Fliegender Hamburger" for regular service between Hamburg and Berlin (286 km or 178 mi), achieving a new top speed of 160 km/h (99 mph). This streamlined multi-powered unit used Jakobs bogies.

Following the Hamburg line's success, the steam-powered Henschel-Wegmann train was developed and introduced in June for service from Berlin to Dresden, with a regular top speed of 160 km/h (99 mph). Notably, no service between the two cities has matched this express train's travel time since its cancellation in 1941. In August, a journey between Dresden-Neustadt and Berlin-Südkreuz took only 102 minutes. Further development allowed Fliegenden Züge (flying trains) to operate across Germany.

Plans for the "Diesel-Schnelltriebwagen-Netz" (diesel high-speed vehicle network) had been conceived since 1933; however, the envisioned network never materialized.

High-speed services were halted in August 1939, shortly before World War II erupted.

American Streamliners

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On May 26, a year after the Fliegender Hamburger's inception, the Burlington Railroad established an average long-distance speed record with their new streamlined train, the Zephyr, which operated at an average speed of 124 km/h (77 mph), peaking at 185 km/h (115 mph). The Zephyr, made of stainless steel and diesel-powered, maintained an operational capacity akin to the Fliegender Hamburger, achieving a maximum speed of 160 km/h (99 mph) in commercial service.

The service began on November 11, traveling between Kansas City and Lincoln, albeit at a lower speed than the record, averaging 74 km/h (46 mph).

In 1948, the Milwaukee Road launched the Morning Hiawatha service, featuring steam locomotives that achieved speeds of 160 km/h (99 mph). During the same period, the Pennsylvania Railroad unveiled a duplex steam engine, Class S1, capable of hauling passenger trains at 161 km/h (100 mph). The S1 engine was integral in running the popular overnight train, the Trail Blazer, between New York and Chicago, consistently reaching 161 km/h (100 mph) in service. The Twin Cities Zephyr also commenced operations in 1949, linking Chicago to Minneapolis, averaging 101 km/h (63 mph).

Several of these streamliners recorded travel times equivalent to or better than their modern Amtrak successors, which are confined by a 127 km/h (79 mph) maximum speed on much of the network.

Italian Electric and the Last Steam Record

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The German high-speed service was succeeded by Italy in 1957 with the electric multiple-unit ETR 200, designed for 200 km/h (120 mph) between Bologna and Naples. It reached 160 km/h (99 mph) in commercial service and established a world mean speed record of 203 km/h (126 mph) between Florence and Milan later that year.

In Great Britain, the streamlined steam locomotive Mallard set the official world speed record for steam locomotives in 1938 at 202.58 km/h (125.88 mph). The larger, heavier external combustion engines and boilers used in steam locomotives became costly to maintain, signaling the end of steam’s era in high-speed rail.

Introduction of the Talgo System

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In 1950, Spanish engineer Alejandro Goicoechea developed a streamlined, articulated train capable of operating on existing tracks at significantly greater speeds than conventional passenger trains. This was achieved through a unique axle system that utilized one axle at each car's end, linked by a Y-bar coupler. Notable advantages of this system included a lower center of mass. This design became widely recognized under the name Talgo (Tren Articulado Ligero Goicoechea Oriol) and served as Spain's primary supplier of high-speed trains for nearly fifty years.

First Above 300 km/h Developments

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In the early 1970s, the French National Railway commissioned new powerful CC 20000 electric locomotives and began exploring higher operational speeds. In 1972, a CC 20000 hauling a full train set a record at 243 km/h (151 mph) on standard tracks. The following year, two specially modified CC 21000 and prototype BB 9004 locomotives broke this record, achieving speeds of 320 km/h (200 mph) and 331 km/h (206 mph) respectively on standard tracks. This marked the first instance of surpassing 300 km/h (190 mph), paving the way for further design and engineering innovations.

Breakthrough: Shinkansen

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The original 0 Series Shinkansen train, introduced in 1964, achieved a maximum speed of 210 km/h (130 mph).

Japanese Research and Development

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Following World War II, Japan faced substantial congestion issues along the densely populated Tokyo-Osaka corridor measured at about 45 million residents. The Japanese government sought innovative methods to enhance intercity transport. Given its resource limitations and intent to minimize petroleum imports for security considerations, energy-efficient high-speed rail proved an attractive solution.

Engineers from Japanese National Railways (JNR) initiated studies to develop high-speed mass transit. In 1958, they participated in the Lille's Electrotechnology Congress, returning with several concepts and technologies, including alternating current for rail traction and international standard gauge.

First Narrow-Gauge Japanese High-Speed Service

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In 1964, the Odakyu Electric Railway introduced the Odakyu 3000 Series SE EMU, which set a world record for narrow-gauge trains at 145 km/h (90 mph). This success instilled confidence among Odakyu engineers in their ability to extend speed further with standard gauge trains. Up until 1964, Japanese rail networks largely operated on the 1,067 mm (3 ft 6 in) Cape gauge. However, adopting standard gauge (1,435 mm or 4 ft 8 1/2 in) for high-speed lines simplified the process, fostering improved stability.

Except for Russia, Finland, and Uzbekistan, all global high-speed rail lines now employ standard gauge, even in locations where legacy lines utilize different gauges.

A New Train on a New Line

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Designated as Shinkansen (meaning "new main line"), the project commenced construction on April 20, 1959, offering a new route featuring a 25% wider standard gauge and welding method between Tokyo and Osaka equipped with new rolling stock designed for 250 km/h (160 mph). Initially, the World Bank backed the project but cautioned that equipment speed designs were unproven, limiting maximum speeds to 210 km/h (130 mph).

Following feasibility tests, construction accelerated, with test runs achieving 256 km/h (159 mph). Just in time for the Tokyo Olympics in October 1964, the inaugural high-speed rail, the Tōkaidō Shinkansen, became operational along a 510 km (320 mi) stretch connecting Tokyo and Ōsaka. The Shinkansen gained global recognition and acclaim due to its remarkable speeds and efficiency.

The first Shinkansen trains, the 0 Series, built by Kawasaki Heavy Industries, outperformed early fast trains in regular service. They could complete the 515 km (320 mi) distance in just over 3 hours and 10 minutes, achieving speeds of up to 210 km/h (130 mph) and maintaining an average speed of 162.8 km/h (101.2 mph) with stops at Nagoya and Kyoto.

High-Speed Rail for the Masses

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Speed, however, was just one facet of the Shinkansen revolution; it also democratized high-speed rail travel. The early bullet trains operated twelve carriages, increasing in later versions to as many as sixteen, with double-deck trains further boosting capacity.

After just three years, trains had served over 100 million passengers, reaching a cumulative milestone of one billion passengers in 1977. In 1972, the line extended an additional 161 km (100 mi), with future expansions resulting in a total network length of 3,058 km (1,900 mi) as of March 2021; a further 399 km (248 mi) was under construction and slated to come online between March 2021 and 2026. The entire system has recorded over 10 billion passenger journeys since 1964, equating to approximately 140% of the world's population, without any fatalities attributed to train accidents (excluding suicides, platform accidents, and industrial mishaps).

Since their inception, Japan’s Shinkansen systems have undergone continuous improvements, enhancing not only line speed but also addressing varying challenges like tunnel noise, vibrations, aerodynamic drag, low patronage routes ("Mini shinkansen"), earthquake and typhoon safety, braking distances, and energy consumption—newer models are twice as energy-efficient as initial trains despite faster speeds.

A maglev train on the Yamanashi Test Track in November 2023.

Future Developments

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Following decades of research and successful testing on a 43 km (27 mi) test track, JR Central is constructing a Maglev Shinkansen line, known as the Chūō Shinkansen. These maglev trains retain traditional underlying tracks coupled with wheels for practical operations at stations and safety in power outages. However, under normal conditions, the wheels retract as speeds increase, allowing magnetic levitation to take over. This line is projected to link Tokyo and Osaka by 2027, with the segment from Tokyo to Nagoya anticipated to commence operations in 2025, achieving average speeds of 505 km/h (314 mph). Initial generation trains are available for public rides at the test track.

China is also advancing the development of two distinct high-speed maglev systems.

Europe and North America

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First Demonstrations at 200 km/h (120 mph)

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High-speed rail in Europe initiated during the International Transport Fair in Munich in June 1971, when Dr. Öpfering, director of Deutsche Bundesbahn (German Federal Railways), conducted 347 demonstrations at 200 km/h (120 mph) between Munich and Augsburg using DB Class 103 trains. In the same year, the French Aérotrain, a hovercraft monorail train prototype, reached 200 km/h (120 mph) shortly after commencing operations.

Le Capitole

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Following the successful deployment of the Japanese Shinkansen in 1964 at 210 km/h (130 mph), the German demonstrations reaching 200 km/h (120 mph) in 1972, and the jet-powered Aérotrain proving concept, SNCF operated their fastest trains at 160 km/h (99 mph).

In 1975, French Infrastructure Minister Edgard Pisani consulted engineers and entrusted the French National Railways with the task of increasing speeds to 200 km/h (120 mph) in one year. The classic Paris-Toulouse line was chosen and modified accordingly to support these new speeds rather than the previous 140 km/h (87 mph). Notable upgrades included signals systems, an on-board "in-cab" signalling system, and curve realignments.

The following year, in May 1976, regular service commenced at 200 km/h (120 mph) with the TEE Le Capitole between Paris and Toulouse, utilizing specially adapted SNCF Class BB locomotives and classic UIC cars, adorned with a vibrant red livery. This inaugural service averaged 119 km/h (74 mph) over 713 km (443 mi).

Simultaneously, the Aérotrain prototype 02 achieved 345 km/h (214 mph) on a half-scale experimental track. In 1977, it set another mark at 422 km/h (262 mph) on the same track. On March 5, 1978, the full-scale commercial Aérotrain I80HV reached an astonishing 430 km/h (270 mph).

US Metroliner Trains

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In the United States, after the Japanese Shinkansen's inception, President Lyndon B. Johnson requested Congress to devise a means to enhance railroad speeds for his Great Society infrastructure initiatives. Consequently, the High Speed Ground Transportation Act of 1965 unanimously passed, paving the way for the Metroliner service between New York City, Philadelphia, and Washington, D.C. The service commenced in 1969, featuring top speeds of 200 km/h (120 mph) and averaging 145 km/h (90 mph) in route, with travel times as brief as 2 hours and 30 minutes.

In a 1972 competition, the United Aircraft Corporation's TurboTrain recorded a remarkable 275 km/h (171 mph) in a Penn Central mainline test.

United Kingdom, Italy, and Germany

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In 1976, British Rail launched a high-speed service capable of reaching 201 km/h (125 mph) with the InterCity 125 diesel-electric trains, operating under the High Speed Train (HST) brand. It remains the fastest diesel-powered train in regular service, outperforming its 160 km/h (100 mph) predecessors in both speed and acceleration. Utilizing a reversible multi-car set with power cars at each end and fixed formations of passenger coaches, journey times on routes like the East Coast Main Line were considerably reduced. By 2021, prior to COVID-19, the UK’s High Speed Intercity services registered over 40 million journeys annually.

The subsequent year, in 1977, Germany introduced a new service reaching 200 km/h (120 mph) on the Munich-Augsburg line. The same period saw Italy inaugurate Europe's first high-speed line, the Direttissima, connecting Rome and Florence, initially designed for 250 km/h (160 mph) but operated at 200 km/h (120 mph) with FS E444 locomotives. French political developments led to the discontinuation of the Aérotrain project in favor of TGV developments.

Evolution in Europe

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Italy

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The earliest European high-speed rail system was the Italian Florence-Rome high-speed railway, also known as "Direttissima," launched in . Initially during its development era, E444 locomotives became the first standard trains capable of achieving speeds of 200 km/h (125 mph), and the ALe 601 electric multiple unit surpassed this at 240 km/h (150 mph) through testing. Other EMUs, namely ETR 220, ETR 250, and ETR 300, were upgraded for similar speeds.

Construction of the Rome-Florence Direttissima began on June 25, marking the birth of high-speed rail in Italy and Europe with the creation of the Paglia river bridge—the longest in Europe at the time—extending 5,375 meters (3.34 mi). Works completed in the early 1990s.

In 1993, a large-scale modernization program focused on upgrading rolling stock was initiated, but shifting emphasis towards local traffic diverted resources from ongoing high-speed projects, causing significant delays and in some cases complete halts. This saw the acquisition of 160 E.656 electric and 35 D.345 locomotives for shorter range traffic, complemented by 80 ALe 801/940 EMUs and 120 ALn 668 diesel railcars. Furthermore, 1,000 passenger cars and 7,000 freight cars were ordered.

Throughout the late 20th century, plans for the Treno Alta Velocità (TAV) project were set in motion, intending to establish a new high-speed network linking Milan, Bologna, Florence, Rome, Naples, and Salerno, alongside routes from Turin to Trieste and Milan.
As of 2021, the majority of the planned lines have become operational, with international connections to France, Switzerland, and Slovenia also emerging.

By December 2016, a considerable portion of the Rome-Naples line launched, followed by various sections along the Turin-Milan line and the Bologna-Florence route. Designed for speeds of up to 300 km/h (190 mph), one can currently travel from Turin to Salerno (approximately 950 km or 590 mi) in under five hours, with over 100 daily train operations.

Future projects include proposed high-speed lines such as Salerno-Reggio Calabria (linked to Sicily through the future bridge across the Strait of Messina), Palermo-Catania, and Naples-Bari.

Italy’s primary public high-speed train operator, Trenitalia (formerly Eurostar Italia), encompasses services under three categories: Frecciarossa ("Red Arrow") trains at a maximum speed of 300 km/h (185 mph) on exclusive high-speed tracks; Frecciargento ("Silver Arrow") trains at 250 km/h (155 mph) operating on both high-speed and mainline tracks; and Frecciabianca ("White Arrow") trains sustaining 200 km/h (125 mph) solely on main tracks.

Since 2012, NTV (branded as Italo), Italy’s first private high-speed train operator, competes directly with Trenitalia, maintaining a unique high-speed service model.

Construction commenced on the Milan-Venice high-speed line in 2018, and the Milan-Treviglio section opened for passenger traffic in 2021; the Milan-Genoa high-speed line (Terzo Valico dei Giovi) is also under development.

Today, traveling from Rome to Milan on a Frecciarossa service takes approximately 2 hours and 55 minutes, with departures every 30 minutes.

France

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Following record-setting achievements with the TGV, the French railway focused on developing high-speed services. Started by studying high-speed capabilities in the early 2000s, the TGV Sud-Est arrived in services characterized by the use of advanced electric mechanisms. The TGV operated on conventional and high-speed tracks, facilitating rapid access to cities throughout the nation and even internationally. The high domestic traffic from rail to air on Paris routes aligned closely with the need for well-connected high-speed rail systems, leading to significant reductions in air traffic levels.

With approximately 2,800 km (1,700 mi) of high-speed rail track operational by current estimates, France maintains a substantial market share in high-speed rail. The original emphasis on catering to business travelers is evident in the early design of TGV trains; nevertheless, leisure travel has become increasingly significant across the network.

Germany

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Germany’s initial high-speed railway systems primarily interconnected north-south routes reflective of historical developments, expanding to east-west corridors post-German unification. In the early 2000s, the Intercity-Express (ICE) trains entered passenger service, running along newly constructed dedicated high-speed routes and existing EuroCity lines, enhancing domestic rail traffic options. After comprehensive studies, the ICE-V prototype broke records reaching up to 406 km/h (252 mph) during initial tests.

Spain

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In 1992, as a focal point for the Barcelona Olympic Games and Seville Expo, Spain inaugurated the Madrid-Seville high-speed rail line. This route incorporated 25 kV AC electrification. Spain's rail service began operations with Class 100 trainsets, derived from the French TGV design, rapidly achieving popularity. The Spanish government established ambitious plans to ensure that by 2020, 90% of the population would reside within 50 km (30 mi) from an AVE-serviced station.

Presently, Spain operates the vast majority of Europe’s high-speed rail network, as of 2021, with 3,966 km (2,464 mi) developed, sharing the second-longest high-speed rail system globally behind China.

Turkey

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Turkey inaugurated its first high-speed service between Ankara and Eskişehir in 2009, followed by the Ankara-Konya route. The Eskişehir line later expanded to Istanbul, interconnected by the Marmaray undersea tunnel across the Bosphorus. The addition of this extension marked the first high-speed train link between two continents, culminating in a significant expanding network in Turkey.

United States

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The United States Congress authorized a development act paving the way for Amtrak to enhance services along the Northeast Corridor in 1970, focusing on electrification and eliminating level crossings, with passengers benefiting from improved reduced travel time between Boston and New York City.

Amtrak tested Swedish X and German ICE 1 trains along the electrified New York City-Washington, D.C. segment but ultimately opted for the Acela Express, modeled after TGV construction, to connect North Eastern cities. The service launched in 2000, aimed to fulfill the regional high-speed travel niche within the corridor.

Currently, there is one high-speed rail line under construction, namely the California High-Speed Rail, alongside numerous advanced plans across regions such as Texas and parts of the Midwest. The Brightline service in Florida commenced operations early in 2021, operating at a limited speed of 201 km/h (125 mph), limiting other sections at 127 km/h (79 mph).

Expansion in East Asia

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From its initiation in 1964, the Japanese Shinkansen remained the only high-speed rail operation outside Europe until the 2000s, at which point several new services emerged across East Asia.

Chinese CRH and CR

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China first introduced high-speed rail in 2003 with the Qinhuangdao-Shenyang line. Subsequently, high-speed rail construction became central to China's economic stimulus plans, leading to an expansive development into the world's most comprehensive high-speed railway system. By 2010, the system surpassed 11,028 km (6,852 mi) of operational track, accounting for roughly half the global total.

By the end of 2021, China’s high-speed railway system had grown to over 29,000 km (18,000 miles), facilitating 1.71 billion trips, encompassing more than half the national railway passenger traffic.

State-led planning for high-speed railway began in the early 1990s, with the flagship line opened between Qinhuangdao and Shenyang being operational by 2004. Consideration for foreign technology spurred domestic innovation, with China leveraging technology from French, German, and Japanese manufacturers over subsequent years. The introduction of the China Railways High-speed (CRH) service, often known as "Harmony Trains," dates back to 2007.

By 2008, trains on the Beijing-Tianjin Intercity Railway began regular services featuring operational speeds of 350 km/h (220 mph), achieving a world record for average speeds over an entire trip across the Wuhan-Guangzhou high-speed railway.

Despite a tragic incident involving a collision in Zhejiang province that raised safety concerns, the renovation of high-speed rail routes resumed, eventually reinstating maximum speeds to prior levels by 2021. The completion of the Beijing-Guangzhou train route linked major cities along the line, including Beijing West Station and Shenzhen North Railway Station, further enhancing the expansive rail grid. The format targets developing a six-layer National high-speed rail grid in the coming decade.

South Korean KTX

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The KTX service from Seoul to Busan began in the late 1990s, representing a vital transport link between South Korea's two largest cities. By 2020, portions of the population were connected by rail, resulting in considerable reductions in travel times while allowing for increased commuter traffic.

Tracking developments across South Korea, KTX trains have a standard operating speed of 305 km/h (190 mph) but possess infrastructure calibrated for potential upgrades to 350 km/h (220 mph). Trains have transitioned into domestic commercialization comprehensively expanding KTX services through tapping into the nation's aviation market share.

Taiwan HSR

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The Taiwan High-Speed Rail service opened its first line on January 5, 2007, utilizing Japanese-developed trains to achieve a top speed of 300 km/h (190 mph). Stretching for approximately 345 km (214 mi) from Nangang to Zuoying, the service traverses Taiwan's populous western corridor, connecting most major cities, including Taipei, New Taipei, Taoyuan, Hsinchu, and Tainan.

Since commencement, the service has attracted considerable patronage, leading to a gradual transition of ridership from airlines operating parallel routes, while also resulting in reduced congestion across major roadways.

Middle East and Central Asia

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Saudi Arabia

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Uzbekistan

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Uzbekistan inaugurated its Afrosiyob service, a 344 km (214 mi) high-speed connection from Tashkent to Samarkand in 2011, upgraded to achieve an average operational speed of 160 km/h (99 mph) and peaks reaching 250 km/h (155 mph). The Talgo 250 service extended to additional routes, improving travel connections across the nation.

Egypt

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As of 2022, Egypt lacks operational high-speed rail lines; however, plans to develop three lines aiming to connect the Nile Valley with the Mediterranean and Red Sea, along with early stage construction on two of these lines, have been initiated.

Africa

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Morocco

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In November 2010, the Moroccan government opted to construct a high-speed rail line linking its economic hub Casablanca with Tangier, a significant harbor city on the Strait of Gibraltar. The initial section of this line, the 323-km (201 mi) Kenitra-Tangier route, was completed in 2018, while future projects are set to expand south and east through Moroccan territory.

Network

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Maps

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Operational high-speed lines in the United States

Operational high-speed lines in Europe

Operational high-speed lines in Western & Central Asia

Operational high-speed lines in East Asia

Operational (Indonesia) and under construction (India, Thailand) high-speed lines in South and Southeast Asia.

Technologies

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A high-speed line on a viaduct, avoiding ramps and road crossings, with a British Rail Class 373 from Eurostar in its original livery.

A German high-speed line featuring ballastless track.

Continuous welded rail is typically utilized to mitigate track vibrations and misalignments. The majority of high-speed lines run electrically driven via overhead lines, incorporate in-cab signalling, and deploy advanced switch designs featuring low-entry angles and frog angles. High-speed rail track construction also aims to minimize vibrations originating from rail use.

Road-Rail Parallel Layout

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The road-rail parallel layout employs land adjacent to highways for railway lines. Examples include Paris/Lyon and Köln/Frankfurt, where 15% and 70% of the track runs beside highways, respectively. Such layouts offer mutual benefits, as noise reduction initiatives for roads also assist railways, curtailing land acquisition needs due to existing developments. Yet downsides persist, given that roads naturally support steeper grades and sharper turns than high-speed rail lines, potentially complicating co-location.

Track Sharing

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In China, high-speed lines operating between 200 and 250 km/h (124 and 155 mph) may simultaneously accommodate freight and passenger services, while lines operating above 300 km/h (186 mph) are designated exclusively for passenger CRH/CR trains.

In the United Kingdom, HS1 is also employed by regional Southeastern running trains, up to speeds of 225 km/h (140 mph), along with occasional freight operations routing to central Europe.

In Germany, several lines permit denser schedules of Inter-City and regional services during the day, integrated night-time freight transports.

Similarly, France allows certain lines to accommodate regional trains traveling at regular speeds of 200 km/h (124 mph), such as TER Nantes-Laval.

A significant drawback of mixing trains of vastly different speed profiles or stopping frequencies on the same tracks results in a substantial capacity reduction, necessitating the separation of such services to maintain operational efficiencies.

Cost

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The cost per kilometer for high-speed rail projects varies widely; in Spain, estimates ranged between €9 million (Madrid-Andalucía) and €22 million (Madrid-Valladolid). Costs in Italy were noted between €24 million (Rome-Naples) and €68 million (Bologna-Florence). French high-speed costs in the 2000s varied from €18 million (BLP Brittany) to €26 million (Sud Europe Atlantique). The World Bank estimated average costs for China's HSR network at about $17-$21 million per kilometer.

Freight High-Speed Rail

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All high-speed trains have primarily been designed for passenger use. Only a few freight services operate exclusively on high-speed tracks and use passenger-classified trains.

During Tokaido Shinkansen's initial planning, the Japanese National Railways poised to include freight services, but this strategy was scrapped before opening; however, light freight transportation has since been incorporated into Shinkansen operations.

For an extended period, the French TGV La Poste served as the sole high-speed train service solely dedicated to freight, efficiently transporting mail for La Poste at maximum speeds of 270 km/h (170 mph) from 1984 until 2015. Trainsets were either specifically constructed or converted passenger TGV Sud-Est vehicles.

Italian service Mercitalia Fast, inaugurated in October 2018, operates a high-speed freight service utilizing modified ETR 500 trains at speeds of around 180 km/h (110 mph), with initial routes between Caserta and Bologna and planned expansions across Italy.

In some regions, high-speed rail integrates courier services for expedited intercity deliveries; for instance, China Railways combines operations with SF Express, while Deutsche Bahn offers express services through the ICE network, using luggage and other unoccupied space within passenger trains rather than dedicated freight rolling stock.

Non-high-speed freight trains operating on high-speed tracks happen frequently; notably, High Speed 1 accommodates weekly freight services. Nevertheless, steep gradients present challenges for freight transport, which typically possess a lower power-to-weight ratio, complicating ascent over sharp inclines.

Rolling Stock

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Key technologies employed in high-speed train rolling stock encompass tilting systems, aerodynamic designs (to minimize drag, lift, and noise), air brakes, regenerative braking, advanced engine technologies, and dynamic weight distribution. Major high-speed train manufacturers include Alstom, Hitachi, Kawasaki, Siemens, Stadler Rail, and CRRC.

Comparison with Other Transportation Modes

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Optimal Distance

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While commercial high-speed trains may not reach maximum speeds as high as jet aircraft, they often provide shorter overall travel times for shorter journeys. Typically, high-speed rail connects city center rail stations, while air travel typically involves distant airports.

HSR serves best in travel ranges of 1 to 4.5 hours (150-900 km or 93-559 mi), outperforming car and air travel in time efficiency. Airline check-in processes, security measures, and airport travel enhance total journey times, making air transport no faster than HSR for trips under 700 km (430 mi).

European authorities assert that HSR competes effectively against passenger flights for trips lasting under 4.5 hours.

High-speed rail systematically displaced air travel across various routes including Paris-Lyon, Paris-Brussels, Cologne-Frankfurt, Nanjing-Wuhan, Chongqing-Chengdu, Taipei-Kaohsiung, Tokyo-Nagoya, and more, significantly reducing air traffic within those vital points.

China Southern Airlines anticipates a notable impact on its route network, with 25% facing challenges from the emergence of high-speed rail projects.

Market Shares

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European research reveals that air transport is comparatively more sensitive to the competition posed by HSR over road transport, particularly on journeys exceeding 400 km (249 mi). The TGV Sud-Est significantly reduced travel times between Paris and Lyon from nearly four hours to around two hours, increasing market share from 40% to 72%, while airplane market shares shrunk from 31% to 7% and road use declined from 29% to 21%.

The AVE service increased the travel share between Madrid and Seville from 16% to 52%, with air traffic decreasing from 40% to 13% and road usage declining from 44% to 36%, ultimately leading to rail travel dominating at 80% overall.

The rail market share analysis formulated by Peter Jorritsma suggests that market share against air services can be broadly calculated by the journey time multiplied by the logistic formula:

s={1 \over 0.031\times 1.016^{t}+1}

According to this computation, a three-hour journey corresponds to around a 65% market share, excluding any price variations.

In Japan, there exists a so-called "4-hour wall" in HSR market share dynamics: if travel time exceeds four hours, air travel becomes preferred. For example, Shinkansen journeys from Tokyo to Osaka average 2h22m, commanding an 85% rail market share versus 15% for air. Conversely, trips extending from Tokyo to Fukuoka taking approximately 4h47m result in only a 10% rail market share, as planes dominate with 90% usage.

Consequently, Taiwan's high-speed rail onset led to the cancellation of all China Airlines flights to Taichung Airport within the year, while further completion of high-speed services resulted in the total cessation of flights between Taipei and Kaohsiung.

Energy Efficiency

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Rail travel tends to hold a competitive advantage in regions with dense populations or high gasoline costs, as conventional trains outperform automobiles in fuel efficiency when carrying substantial passenger loads—similar to other mass transit forms. Few high-speed trains rely on diesel or other fossil fuels, as respective electric power stations may rely on such fuels. Notably, extensive high-speed rail networks in nations like Japan (pre-Fukushima) and France largely draw network electricity from nuclear power sources. Travel emissions decrease significantly on Eurostar journeys compared to flight emissions.

Germany managed to achieve 38.5% of electricity generation from renewable sources as of 2021; however, rail operations are primarily independent of the general grid and rely on dedicated power plants. Even with electricity from fossil-based sources, high-speed rail significantly proves more fuel-efficient per passenger per kilometer than conventional personal vehicles.

Automobiles and Buses

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High-speed rail accommodates more passengers at higher velocities than road-based transport. Generally, the longer the distance, the greater the time advantage of rail over road when traveling to the same destination; nevertheless, HSR can compete effectively with automobiles for trips under 150 km (90 mi), especially for commute-related travel scenarios when congestion and parking fees enter the equation. Rail's growing presence in such shorter connections facilitates extended commuting behaviors, leveraging affordable residential options in areas further from major urban centers while maintaining close proximity to significant rail hubs.

Furthermore, delivering capacity with traditional rail vehicles surpasses that of corresponding road systems. For context, Eurostar's operational framework permits as many as 12 trains per hour with 800 passengers each emanating comprehensive capacities up to 9,600 passengers per hour in each direction. In contrast, the Highway Capacity Manual cites maximum passenger car capacity at 2,250 per lane, based upon average vehicle occupancy figures, assuming older trucks and buses could offer higher average per-vehicle occupancies during peak travel times.

Historically since its inception, the Shinkansen has demonstrated even more significant throughput ratios, notably exceeding 20,000 passengers per hour in each direction during peak service intervals. On the flip side, commuter roadways often showcase average vehicle occupancy ratios below 1.57—exemplified by various governmental transportation agencies citing reductions in public transit use during daily commute times.

Air Travel

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HSR Advantages

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Disadvantages

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• HSR typically necessitates land acquisition, evidenced by the complex legal framework surrounding projects like Fresno in the U.S.
• HSR construction faces potential land subsidence challenges, as seen in Taiwan, leading to costly remedial actions.
• The construction of HSR is influenced heavily by geographic elevations that can extend project costs significantly when confront large environmental structures such as mountain ranges or bodies of water.
• High-speed rail requires specialized infrastructure accompanied by advanced technologies and numerous safety systems, leading to significant initial capital outlay.
• The infrastructure's fixed nature limits service flexibility, though for passengers, this often secures a reliable transport form that maintains route offerings compared to competing air routes.
• Extensive infrastructure needs hinder the creation of direct routes connecting all major cities, adding additional travel time at stations or intermediate junctions.
• HSR relies on the cooperation and security provisions across diverse geographical areas and jurisdictions involved in its operations.
• Electrified HSR requires a vast and comprehensive electricity network to facilitate overhead line services.

Pollution

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High-speed rail generally operates on electric power sources, allowing for greater distances or integration of renewable energy options. This can lead to significant reductions in air pollutants, as demonstrated through focused case studies carried out on China's rail network during its developmental phases. This advantage starkly contrasts with air travel reliance on fossil fuels as a pollution source. Capture evidence from areas surrounding major airports suggests a substantial accumulation of airborne pollutants often surpasses levels recorded in adjacent urban environments.

Trees

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Airport construction regularly necessitates tree removal due to obstructions impacting flight paths; for instance, Seattle-Tacoma International Airport has faced tree removal projects affecting 3,000 trees. In contrast, trees within proximity to rail lines can pose hazards during leaf-dropping seasons, prompting safety considerations and major discussions among various environmental agencies and stakeholders regarding optimal tree management practices adjacent to railway infrastructures.

Safety

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Implementing HSR inherently simplifies control measures as trains operate along predictable paths, significantly resulting in reduced probability (yet not complete elimination) of collisions with automobiles or pedestrians enabled by non-grade level tracks and the avoidance of shared crossings. Notably, the Shinkansen line maintains a flawless record of safety; the only three fatal incidents associated with high-speed trains occurred where operational speeds were not determinative factors.

Accidents

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Overall, travel on high-speed rail has proven remarkably safe. The Shinkansen system in Japan has recorded zero passenger fatalities since its inception in 1964.

Major accidents involving high-speed trains entails several notable instances:

Eschede Accident

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In 1998, following over 30 years of operational integrity for high-speed rail, the Eschede accident occurred in Germany. A defective ICE 1 wheel fractured at a running speed of 200 km/h (124 mph) near Eschede, resulting in the derailment and subsequent destruction of nearly the entire 16-car set, with 101 casualties. This incident prompted extensive investigations into maintenance and safety protocols across all rail operations.

Wenzhou Accident

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On July 23, 2011, a CRH2 railcar traveling at 100 km/h (62 mph) collided with a CRH1 train that had halted on a viaduct in Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province. This incident led to the derailment of both trains, culminating in four cars tumbling off the structure, resulting in 40 fatalities and 192 injuries, with 12 of these being critical cases. Subsequent changes in management and protocols directly resulted from this accident despite speed being deemed non-contributory as the factor in causing incidents during investigations.

In the wake of Wenzhou, maximum operational speeds across rail networks in China were subsequently reduced across various lines.

Santiago de Compostela Accident

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In July 2013, a high-speed train traveling at 190 km/h (120 mph) overshot an 80 km/h (50 mph) curve, resulting in significant derailment and the tragic loss of 78 lives. Notably, the prevention systems routinely implemented for high-speed operations failed in this incident due to operator negligence compounded by economic decision making linked to continuous budget constraints.

Eckwersheim Accident

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On November 14, 2015, an ICE EuroDuplex overshot a curve on the newly built LGV Est high-speed line during commissioning tests, flipping over and striking the parapet of a bridge. This incident involved approximately 50 individuals on board, of whom 11 died, and 37 others sustained injuries. The train had been operating above planned speed limits due to adjustments made for tests, raising questions about safety protocols for trials.

Ankara Train Collision

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On December 13, a high-speed passenger train collided with a locomotive near Yenimahalle in Ankara Province, resulting in three passenger carriages derailing. While three railroad personnel lost their lives, eight other passengers received injuries, some critically. This incident raised significant concern regarding operational safety as investigations ensued.

Lodi Derailment

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On February 6, 2020, a train traveling at 300 km/h (190 mph) derailed in Lombardy, Italy, leading to the deaths of two drivers and injuring several passengers. Investigation points towards a malfunctioning junction point that was determined to have displayed inaccurate positioning signals, thereby creating a hazardous situation for passengers.

Ridership

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High-speed rail ridership has surged significantly since the turn of the century. Initially, the largest ridership share belonged to Japan's Shinkansen network, which recorded around 85% of cumulative global ridership as of 2000. As of 2018, this pattern shifted as China surpassed Japan, marking itself as the most substantial contributor to the global ridership increase since its inception, achieving over 1.44 billion rides in 2019 and an upward trend continuing into 2020, culminating in a total of over 9 billion cumulative passengers transported by the end of 2021.

Records

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Speed

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The L0 Series Shinkansen holds the world speed record for unconventional trains (603 km/h or 374.7 mph), while the V150 train, a modified TGV, holds the conventional speed record (574.8 km/h or 357.2 mph).

Definitions of "maximum speed" encompass:

• The maximum speed legally permitted for operational service based on regulations.
• The maximum speed an unmodified train is proven capable of sustaining.
• The utmost speed achieved by specially modified trains in tests.

Absolute Speed Record

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Overall Rail Record

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The world record for a conventional passenger train was established on April 21, 2015, by a manned L0 series maglev train reaching speeds of 603 km/h (375 mph) in Yamanashi Prefecture, Japan.

Conventional Rail

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Since winning its record in 2007—when France recorded its world record at 331 km/h—the nation has held the absolute world speed record nearly continuously. The most recent record, achieved by the TGV POS, reached 574.8 km/h (357.2 mph) in 2007 on the LGV Est high-speed line; this run affirmed conceptual and engineering viability, not standard passenger operation.

Maximum Speed in Service

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As of 2021, several trains currently in commercial operation include:

Although many technical capabilities allow higher speeds, operational limits importantly emphasize economic determinants alongside customer pricing strategizing and maintenance considerations.

Levitation Trains

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The Shanghai Maglev Train achieves speeds of 431 km/h (268 mph) along its 30.5 km (19.0 mi) dedicated line, maintaining the fastest commercial operation status.

Conventional Rail

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The latest operational conventional trains include the Chinese CR400A and CR400B operating over the Beijing-Shanghai high-speed railway. Prior to mid-2019, trains reaching official maximum speeds of 300 km/h (186 mph) achieved an acceptable operational tolerance, often squeezing into 310 km/h (193 mph) during standard operation. Comparative performance is presented with French TGV POS, the German ICE 3, and Tokyo's E5 and E6 Series Shinkansen, yielding maximum speeds of 320 km/h (199 mph).

In Spain, the maximum authorized speeds on the Madrid-Barcelona HSL register at 310 km/h (193 mph).

Service Distance

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The China Railway G403/4, G405/6, and D939/40 Beijing-Kunming train services represent the world's longest high-speed rail services, charting 2,653 kilometers (1,648 miles) within travel duration ranging between 10 hours and 43 minutes to 14 hours and 54 minutes.

Existing Systems by Country and Region

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The first high-speed routes, constructed in Japan, France, Italy, and Spain, facilitated the connection of major cities, namely Paris to Lyon, Tokyo to Osaka, Rome to Florence, and Madrid to Seville. Throughout Europe and East Asia, extensive urban transit networks connect efficiently with high-speed rail services.

Asia

China

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With over 40,000 kilometers (25,000 miles) of operational high-speed rail tracks as of 2022, China boasts the world’s most extensive HSR network, transporting over 1.44 billion passengers in 2019 and contributing significantly to global ridership growth since its implementation. With estimates locating the network’s cumulative ridership at over 9 billion by the end of 2021, the HSR serves as a critical component of the country’s transportation infrastructure.

Improvements in resident mobility bolstered by high-speed rail adoption generates substantial commuter markets surrounding prominent urban areas. Regardless of parallel transport modal alternatives, commuter patterns are increasingly becoming commonplace among municipalities bordering major urban populations.

Hong Kong

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The West Kowloon station serves as a fully underground express rail link spanning 26 km (16 miles) from near Kwun Chung to the mainland border, where the train continues on towards Shenzhen's Futian station.